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Climate Resilient Agriculture:

Practices for Smallholder Farmers

Volume 2 part 5

Farmer Handouts: English

E Kruger, MC Dlamini, T Mathebula, P Ngcobo, BT Maimela & S Ntonta

Report to the

Water Research Commission

Mahlathini Development Foundation

WRC Report No. TT 841/6/20

February 2021

Obtainable from

Water Research Commission

Private Bag X03

Gezina, 0031

orders@wrc.org.za or download from www.wrc.org.za or www.mahlathini.org

The publication of this report emanates from a project entitled Collaborative knowledge creation and mediation

strategies for the dissemination of Water and Soil Conservation practices and Climate Smart Agriculture in

smallholder farming systems. (WRC Project No.K5/2719/4)

This report forms part of a series of 9 reports. The reports are:

Volume 1: Climate Change Adaptation for smallholder farmers in South Africa. An implementation and

decision support guide. Summary report. (WRC Report No. TT 841/1/20)

Volume 2 Part 1: Community Climate Change Adaptation facilitation: A manual for facilitation of Climate

Resilient Agriculture for smallholder farmers. (WRC Report No. TT 841/2/20)

Volume 2 Part 2: Climate Resilient Agriculture. An implementation and support guide: Intensive homestead

food production practices. (WRC Report No. TT 841/3/20)

Volume 2 Part 3: Climate Resilient Agriculture. An implementation and support guide: Local, group-based

access to water for household food production. (WRC Report No. TT 841/4/20)

Volume 2 Part 4: Climate Resilient Agriculture. An implementation and support guide: Field cropping and

livestock integration practices. (WRC Report No. TT 841/5/20)

Volume 2 Part 5: Climate Resilient Agriculture learning materials for smallholder farmers in English. (WRC

Report No. TT 841/6/20)

Volume 2 Part 6: Climate Resilient Agriculture learning materials for smallholder farmers in isiXhosa. (WRC

Report No. TT 841/7/20)

Volume 2 Part 7: Climate Resilient Agriculture learning materials for smallholder farmers in isiZulu. (WRC

Report No. TT 841/8/20)

Volume 2 Part 8: Climate Resilient Agriculture learning materials for smallholder farmers in Sepedi. (WRC

Report No. TT 841/9/20)

DISCLAIMER

This report has been reviewed by the Water Research Commission (WRC) and approved for publication.

Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the views and policies of the WRC, nor does

mention of trade names or commercial productsconstitute endorsement or recommendation for use.

ISBN 978-0-6392-0232-7

Printed in the Republic of South Africa

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The following individuals and organisations deserve acknowledgement for their invaluable contributions and

support to this project:

Chris Stimie (Rural Integrated Engineering – RIEng)

Dr Brigid Letty and Jon McCosh (Institute of Natural Resources – INR)

Nqe Dlamini (StratAct)

Catherine van den Hoof (Researcher)

Dr Sharon Pollard, Ancois de Villiers, Bigboy Mkabela and Derick du Toit (Association for Water and Rural

Development)

Hendrik Smith (GrainSA)

Marna de Lange (Socio-Technical Interfacing)

Matthew Evans (Web developer)

MDF interns and students: Khethiwe Mthethwa, Samukhelisiwe Mkhize, Sylvester Selala, Palesa Motaung

and Sanelise Tafa

MDF board members: Timothy Houghton and Desiree Manicom

PROJECT FUNDED BY

REFERENCE GROUP MEMBERS

Prof S Mpandeli Water Research Commission

Dr S Hlophe-Ginindza Water Research Commission

Dr L NhamoWater Research Commission

Dr O CrespoUniversity of Cape Town

Dr A Manson KZN Department of Agriculture and Rural Development

Prof S WalkerAgricultural Research Council

Prof CJ Rautenbach Previously of WeatherSA

COLLABORATING ORGANISATIONS

https://inr.org.za/https://award.org.za/https://amanziforfood.co.za/

https://foodtunnel.co.za/http://www.rieng.co.za/

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Climate Resilient Agriculture: Practices for

smallholder farmers

1 WHAT IS CLIMATE RESILIENT AGRICULTURE (CRA)

Climate resilient agriculture aims to sustainability increase agricultural productivity and incomes while

adapting our farming practices to the changed circumstances and also making sure that our farming is friendly

to nature. It is about making changes to how we farm in a changing environment that will improve both our

ability and the ability of the environment to cope with these changes

The emphasis is at farm/household level. CRA aims to improve aspects of crop production, livestock and

pasture management, natural resource management, as well as soil and water management as shown in the

figure below.

Figure 1: Household level implementation of CRA integrates across sectors (adapted from Arslan, 2014)

There are a range of farming practices that can be useful. The idea is that we try out the practices that are

appropriate for us, where we live and compare them with what we are doing already, to observe the

differences and to make decisions from there aboutchanging our farming systems.

Combining a number of different practices will increase their effect.

The practices are briefly described below

Further information can be found on the following websites

www.mahlathini.org

www.amanziforfood.co.za

Crops Livestock

Soil health

and

fertility

Water

rops

Natural

resources/

landscape

SYNERGIES

SSS

Soil

and water

conservation

2 PRINCIPLES

The main principles or concepts that we have focused on in choosing the practices are the following:

• Minimize external inputs

• Maximise internaldiversity

• Focus on soil health and natural soil building techniques

• Take care of the environment

• Use available water as efficiently as possible.

• Work together, learn together and plan together

All these practices have been tried out with smallholder farmers over the last three to eight years. We know

they work, so good luck with trying them all out.

3 WATER MANAGEMENT (MANAGE AVAILABLE WATER AND INCREASE ACCESS TO WATER)

3.1 INFILTRATION DITCHES (RUN-ON DITCHES, DIVERSION DITCHES)

These are shallow ditches (30 cm wide and 15-30 cm deep) that are dug either to channel water to a specific

area (diversion ditches) or to catch water an allow it to sink into the soil in a cropping area (run-on ditches);

the latter are dug on contour.

Planting can be done on the ridges, adding manure/ compost and mulching of both the ridges and ditches is a

good idea

These ditches increase access to and availability of water in intensive food production.

REQUIREMENTS

- Rainfall: >150 mm/year

- Temperature: >5°C

-Topography: any slope

-Soil: 5-35% clay, depth >15 cm

IMPLEMENTATION

- Gardens, fields

- <0,1 ha, 0,1-1 ha

-Low cost, local resources

-Easy to do and maintain; labour intensive

Diversion ditch, mulched and

sweet potato planted on

ridge

Digging a diversion ditch (1,5-5%slope; 30 cm wide

and 30 cm deep with soil placed on upper slope

Preparing the ridge of the diversion ditch for

planting – shaping and adding manure

3.2 CUT OFF DRAINS/ SWALES

A swale is an earth bank constructed along the contour with a furrow (40 cm deep and 50 cm wide) on the up-

slope side. The top of the earth bank is levelled off to allow planting. The swale intercepts runoff, spreads it

out and helps it infiltrate deep into the ground. Typically, permanent crops (e.g. fruit trees) are planted just

below the ridge of the swale, while seasonal crops (e.g. vegetables) are planted between the swales.

REQUIREMENTS

-Rainfall: >150 mm <1200 mm/year

- Temperature: >5°C

- Topography: 5%-25%

-Soil: all types – although soils that are too sandy or

too clayey are difficult to manage

IMPLEMENTATION

- Gardens, fields

-<0,1 ha, 0,1-1 ha, >2 ha

-Low cost, local resources,

- Labour intensive

Constructing a swale and a view of two swales

indicating the flow of water

Digging the cut off drain/swale ditch.

Soil is placed on the downslope

Mulching can also be placed in the ditch and

cro

lanted both in the ditch and on the mound

Preparing trench beds below a swale

3.3 FURROWS AND RIDGES

Furrows are dug on contour and soil placed upslope in a mound. Planting is done on the mounds or ridges

and irrigation or water, flows along the furrow. It is possible to create cross ties to ensure good irrigation – so

water can accumulate in the furrow and seep into the ground. Mulching is a good idea.

REQUIREMENTS

- Rainfall: >150 mm/year

- Temperature: >5°C

- Topography: 0,5%-5%

- Soil: all types

IMPLEMENTATION

- Gardens, fields

-<0,1 ha, 0,1-1 ha

-Low cost, local resources,

- Labour intensive

Furrows and ridges used in field cropping; note the tied

ridges to hold water in the furrows

A vegetable garden laid out in

furrows and ridges; planted to

tomatoes, carrots and spinach. Note

the trench bed in the front right of

the picture

Mulched furrows in a garden

planted to tomatoes. Flood

irrigation is practiced in the

furrows

Fruit trees can be combined into the beds in this system

3.4 TIED RIDGES

This method increases the water that is available to plants by collecting rainfall from an unplanted sloping

basin and catching it with a furrow and ridge. Planting takes place on either side of the furrow where the water

has infiltrated. The slope of these basins needs to be

Basins are created by digging out shallow furrows along the contour lines of the slope and constructing ridges

on the downside of the furrows. These are “tied” together by slightly lower ridges which are constructed at

regular intervals along the furrows.

REQUIREMENTS

- Rainfall: 400-700 mm/year

- Temperature: >5°C

- Topography: 0,5%-7%

-Soil: Soils should be relatively stable. The

best soils are clay or soils with a relatively

permeable topsoil over a less permeable

subsoil

IMPLEMENTATION

- Gardens, fields

-<0,1 ha, 0,1-1 ha

-Low cost, local resources,

- Labour intensive

Mulched furrows in a garden laid out with tied ridges

Water collecting in the furrows, in a maize field with tied ridges

A small field laid out with tied ridges planted to sweet

potatoes and maize, Free State

3.5 INFILTRATION PITS/ BANANA CIRCLES

Basins are dug in the soil along water flow lines (to catch and slow water). These basins are filled with organic

matter (large amounts) mixed with soil and bananas or other water loving crops are planted in the basins

A variation of this is that one pit or basin is dug in a water flow line and slowly filled with organic matter (green

and manure) – for slow composting. Here bananas or other crops are planted on the edges.

REQUIREMENTS

- Rainfall: >350 mm/year

- Temperature: >5°C

-Topography: 1,5%-25%

-Soil: all types (5-30% clay) and depths (>30 cm)

IMPLEMENTATION

- Gardens

- <0,1 ha,

-Low cost, local resources

-Easy to do and maintain; labour intensive

Smaller, separate basins can be

made; basins are dug out and filled

with or

anic matter

A mulched banana circle, mixed with herbsStep wise basins along a drainage line in a homestead garden.

Tied ridges are made between the basins

3.6 MULCHING

Soil is covered by a variety of crop residues and organic matter, to save water, reduce soil temperatures, and

increase soil health

REQUIREMENTS

- Rainfall: >350 mm/year

- Temperature: >5°C

- Topography: 1,5%-25%

-Soil: all types (5-30% clay) and depths (>30 cm)

IMPLEMENTATION

- Gardens

- <0,1 ha,

-Low cost, local resources

-Easy to do and maintain; labour intensive

Leaf litter mulch of trench bed

Napier fodder/ sugar cane, stover mulch

of ve

etable beds

Lucerne or grass mulch of dryland. Conservation agriculture plot

Grass mulch of furrows and ridges planting system

3.7 SHADE CLOTH TUNNELS

40% Grey shade net tunnels of 4.2 m x 6 m, 2 m high in size are constructed using ‘kits’ and local materials.

The hoops are made of conduit piping which is bent using a “jig” – a metal frame. These hoops are placed

directly into the soil – avoiding any construction and then the netting is placed over the hoops and sewn on.

The tunnel is anchored on both sides

Inside the tunnel are three trench beds 1 m x 5 m

and each is supplied with a 20 L bucket drip kit.

Mixed cropping is practiced in the tunnel and

greywater can also be used.

These tunnels are appropriate anywhere where

cropping is possible, trench beds can be dug and

some irrigation can by supplied.

IMPLEMENTATION

- Gardens

- <0,1 ha,

-Medium cost, medium skills, including

learning and mentoring

- Low maintenance

Line 1 Above left to right: Using a rope template to mark out the tunnel and arch position; Using a hollow metal bar to make the holes for the

metal arches; Bending the arches using a jig; and joining the bent halves of the arches with a standard connector.

Line 2 Above left to right; ‘Planting” the arches in their holes; Sewing the netting for the end panels onto the two end arches before putting them

up; Pulling and tightening the netting over all arches once they have been put up; then anchoring the arches and putting the final touches to the

structure once the netting around the bottom the edges have been buried for added structural protection against wind forces.

Line 3 Above left and right: Examples of completed tunnels, with the three bucket drip kits installed.

A recently completed tunnel with bucket drip kits installed and

spinach planted

3.8 RAINWATER HARVESTING AND STORAGE

Generally, smallholders

collect water in available

basins, drums and JoJo

tanks. This does not provide

a lot of water.

Underground tanks can store

a lot more water. These

tanks collect runoff water

form structures, roads and

the general area, to store

large amounts of water

(25 000-40 000 litres);

enough water for a 100-200

m2 garden for 4-6 months.

Large holes need to be dug and then tanks are constructed – either ferrocement, blocks and plaster or

geofabric and bitumen.

REQUIREMENTS

- Rainfall: >450 mm/year

- Temperature: >5°C

-Topography: 1,5%-25%

-Soil: all types (5-30% clay), and depths (>30 cm)

IMPLEMENTATION

- Gardens

-<0,1 ha, 0,1-1 ha, .2 ha

-High cost and or high labour requirements for storage structures

-High levels of skill and knowledge (outside support and training initially required

-Medium maintenance and effort. Water needs to be taken out by bucket, or pumped. Silt needs to be

removed from time to time

Local RWH storage options in Limpopo; basins, 210 L drums, 1000 L containers and Jo-Jo tanks,

these hold little water

A ferrocement underground tank with brick

wall for placement of a roof structure under

construction

An example of an underground tank (18 m3),

with a removable metal roof

(

Acornhoek

)

The silt trap for a 25 000 L underground

tank to reduce silt load of stored water

A completed geofabric tank with brick wall

and roof for safety. The inlet furrow for

water is in the foreground

3.9 RAINWATER HARVESTING STORAGE;JO-JO

TANKS

Jo-Jo tanks can be used for harvesting water off

roofs (usually 2500 L-5000 L in size). It is

important to make sure proper gutters and pipes

are installed.

It is also possible to use partially buried Jo-Jo

tanks as an option to harvest water off steep

slopes. Here the water can be gravity fed from the

tanks and no pumps or buckets re required

And there are options for using Jo-Jo tanks

underground, although in this case they need to

be strengthened. This is easier than constructing

tanks.

A home-made suction pump can be used

et water out of under

round tanks

Gutters and inlet pipes are important when using Jo-Jo tanks to collect

water from roofs

Partially buried Jo-Jo tanks for harvesting water off

slopes

Jo-Jo tanks buried for underground water storage

A small table showing the amount of water that can be harvested for

a small IDP house

3.10 SMALL DAMS

Small dams can be dug in soils that can hold water (more than 25% clay). They tend to lose water and only

stay full for a short period, but provide a lot of water to the soil profile in the area. Usually they are dug in

places where small springs can fill them up on a continuous basis, or where overland water flow or run-off is

prevalent.

It is possible to line these small dams/ponds with plastic, but only if there is a reasonable chance that they will

stay full, as the plastic decays easily in the sun.

It is also possible to line the small dams with bentonite to seal them, again only when ponds are likely to

remain full of water most of the time.

Three examples of small dams/ponds dug in soil that will hold water – >25% clay to be sure. The one on the right is a ‘large’ dam fed

a s

rin

sli

htl

her u

the slo

e. The dam in the central

icture is fed b

ravit

fed from a river

A small pond lined with bentonite (the yellowish clay inside the

pond,) being filled up. Note the angle of the pond walls, the

slope of the pond walls, that allows for the bentonite to be

stamped into sides and bottom of the pond to seal it.

A small pond dug in a community garden fed by run-off water

from the road and lined with plastic

3.11 WATER ACCESS

Management, and development of local water sources, with reticulation to homesteads and gardens is

possible for small local community groups:

-Community level groups work together to agree upon who will be involved (not more than 20 people),

who need to be actively involved in farming and in close proximity to each other

-They identify a local water source in the vicinity; a spring or potential borehole sites and ratify their

use of this source with the local authorities

-Then a system is designed to provide for a header tank filled from the source and then gravity fed

reticulation to all the involved households and gardens.

-The water committee designs and implements the rules for water allocations to each household and

manages any finances and payment involved

-All participating members are expected to contribute financially, to do the labour for the installations

themselves and to proactively manage the water with the other members in their group

-All permissions from the water services authorities and local authorities need to be obtained and

arrangements need to be made for ongoing maintenance.

REQUIREMENTS

- Rainfall: >150 mm/year

- Temperature: >5°C

-Topography: any slope

- Soils: Any

-Sources of water; springs, ground water

IMPLEMENTATION

Households and gardens

- <0,1 ha

-High cost, external and local resources

-Labour and skill intensive; need for local training and technical support

An example of a header tank

from where water is gravity fed

to the households

An example of a household

connection. These drums are

interlinked and have a float valve

to ensure the water stops

running when the drums are full

Drilling of boreholes and laying of pipes form the

header tank to the households

A spring dug out to form a small dam. The spring protection consists of a slotted pipe buried in a ditch dug below the dam and which

is then covered with gravel, shade netting and soil, to be protected. In this way a spring can be protected, without major construction

3.12 GREYWATER MANAGEMENT

Greywater is water used for washing in a household (clothes, dishes, people), but does not include blackwater

(toilet water, sewage). Greywater is generally high in soap content of various types and organic matter.

Dangers in use include microbial contamination, nitrification from soap and crusting on top of the soil if it is

used in the same place often. Management for safe use and disposal of greywater is important. Mostly this

consists of using ash and other substances such as moringa seed to bind and flocculate some of the soap,

and irrigation practices that avoids the greywater from touching the leaves of the crops.

Three methods for using grey water are described here.

1.Bucket drip kits

These are small drip irrigation systems made for individual beds, around 1 m wide and 5 m long and a 20 L

bucket. The drip kit is assembled on site making your own string drippers and choosing width of lines and

spacing of drippers. Usually two dripper lines are used; 30 cm apart. Watering is done on a daily basis.

These buckets can also be adapted to include sand filters to filter greywater and or dirty warty irrigation water.

In this case a layer of gravel is placed in the bottom of the bucket, followed by a layer of rinsed, clean river

sand. The sand is placed inside a muslin bag to avoid mixing when the buckets are filled with water. These

‘filters’ need to be replaced from time to time as the flowrate from the bucket drip systems starts slowing

down. The drip irrigation pipes also need to be ‘flushed’ by opening the end clamps and allowing the flow of

water to wash out any accumulated silt and debris

Gravel la

er in the bottom of the bucket

Sand placed in a closed muslin bag on-top of

the gravel, to avoid sand being washed into

the dri

er lines

Wetting circles produced by the string

dri

ers

Example of the two drip lines, 30 cm

apart Gre

water in a bucket dri

stem

Both the gravel and sand is rinsed prior to use,

to make sure they are clean and to avoid

clogging up of the system 2015)

The pictures below provide a visual description of how these small drip systems are assembled.

The pipe is sealed at the

end by bending it over and

clam

Two dripper lines, around 30 cm apart

are connected to the down pipe

A group of ladies, practising to make their string drippers

Holes are made through the dripper pipe, from side to side

and some plastic string is threaded through the holes and

tied with knots to create the “dri

ers”

A small hole is made at the bottom of the 20 L bucket to

connect the elbow connector and the down

The bucket is placed on a stand and a down pipe is

connected, to ensure there is

ressure in the dri

er lines

Once made, the system is tested to ensure that

evenly sized wetting circles are produced by

each “dri

er”

2.Tower gardens

Tower gardens are built up from the ground by using four poles and wrapping a tube of 80% shade cloth

around these poles. In the centre of the bed, a stone column is built up using a bottomless bucket as a ring.

The bed is filled in with a pre-prepared mixture (1/3 soil, 1/3 manure, 1/3 ash (It needs a lot of ash to clean the

greywater used). Small holes are made in the side of the bag and seedlings are planted vertically into these

small holes – usually spinach or another leafy vegetable. The top of the bed can be used for planting other

crops – tomatoes are good as they can be staked to the poles. The bed is watered by pouring the greywater

onto the stone column in the middle

IMPLEMENTATION

- Greywatermanagement

- Gardens

- <0,1 ha,

-Low-medium cost, low-medium skills, including learning and mentoring, local resources

-Low maintenance – but bags will need to be replaced after some time (3-5 years)

Making the soil, manure ash

mixture for filling the tower

arden

Placement of the stone column – in the small

bottomless bucket in the middle of the bed

Building up the tower – filling in

the soil mix around the stone

column and moving it up

Making the small holes in the side of the bag for

lantin

seedlin

Watering into the central stone column A ‘mature’ tower garden planted

to spinach, kale, spring onions

3.Keyhole beds

These are intensive built-up beds with a central compost basket/column for watering and greywater

application. They are easy to manage. The bed is circular (3 m diameter), with a keyhole in the upper slope

side to provide access to the compost basket which is filled continually and for watering. The walls are built

60 cm-80 cm high and the bed is filled with a pre-prepared mix of soil, compos/manure (at least 20% by

volume) and ash. Lime and bone-meal can also be added. The bed is planted to mixed crops or divided into

sections where crops are rotated

IMPLEMENTATION

- Gardens

- <0,1 ha,

-Low cost, low-medium skills, including learning and mentoring, local resources (stone should be

easily available as 500-800 kg is required)

- Low maintenance

A recently constructed keyhole bed. Here the central

column is of gravel or small stones inside the bed – rather

than a compost basket

A drawing showing a keyhole bed form the top with the

central compost basket divided into four sections for crop

rotation

(

fruit-leaf-root-le

ume

)

A ‘mature’ ke

hole bed

lanted to a mixture of cro

3.13 GRASSED WATERWAYS

Grassed waterways are broad, shallow and typically saucer-shaped channels designed to move surface water

across farmland without causing soil erosion. These channels are used for the safe disposal of excess runoff

from the crop lands to some safe outlet such as rivers or streambeds.

xThe vegetative cover in the waterway slows the water flow and protects the channel surface from the

eroding forces of runoff water.

xPlanting of creeping and perennial grasses such as Paspalum, Fescue, Kikuyu and couch grass are

better than planting tall upright, annual grasses

xMake the cross section of the waterway either trapezoidal or parabolic, and never V-shaped and be

sure waterways are at least 30-40 cm deep and the slope of the sidewalls should never be steeper

than 1 in 4.

REQUIREMENTS

- Rainfall: >450 mm/year

- Temperature: >5°C

-Topography: 1,5%-25%

-Soil: all types (5-30% clay), and

depths (>30 cm)

IMPLEMENTATION

- Fields

-0,1-1 ha, >1 ha

-Low cost, local resources

-Easy to do and maintain, but labour

intensive

Parabolic or trapezoidal shapes appropriate for grassed water ways.

Note the banks are along a shallow gradient. (Michigan State

Universit

(

MSU Extension 2015

)

Left: Erosion caused by run-off in a wheat field (MSU

Extension

2015

)

The same field with a grassed waterway installed a few years

later, (MSU Extension, 2015)

Paspalum (Bahia Grass) is a good

option for waterways – it is tough and

drou

ht resistant

Tall Fescue remains green

throughout winter

Couch grass (Elymus repens), is considered a

weed, in cropping land but it grows well even in

poor soils and provides good cover for a

waterway

4 SOIL MANAGEMENT (EROSION CONTROL, SOIL FERTILITY AND SOIL HEALTH)

4.1 STONE LINES/ BUNDS

Stone lines are packed on contours to control water movement and provide for a bit of build-up of soil and silt

behind the lines. The stones are keyed into a shallow ditch and larger stones are packed downslope from the

smaller stones to avoid stone lines form breaking and also to allow slow movement of water though the stone

lines. Planting can be done below the stone line as more water accumulates there, or just above the stone line

in the accumulated silt and soil.

REQUIREMENTS

- Rainfall: >150 mm/year

- Temperature: >5°C

- Topography: 0,5%-5%

-Soil: all types – where stones and rocks are

easily available

IMPLEMENTATION

- Gardens, fields

-<0,1 ha, 0,1-1 ha, >2 ha

-Low cost, local resources,

- Labour intensive

Stone lines are constructed on contour and can be done

at any scale.

A view showing the stones keyed into a ditch with larger

stones downslope of the smaller stones.

Small stone lines are used to

control run-off from a road and

channel water into the gardens

Brinjals planted in accumulated

silt above a garden level stone

line

Bananas planted below a

substantial stone line

4.2 CHECK DAMS

A check dam is a small, sometimes temporary, dam constructed perpendicularly across a drainage ditch, or

waterway to counteract erosion by reducing water flow velocity and allowing sedimentation of silt. Different

materials can be used including soil, stones, wood and vegetation. The stones or other materials, are keyed

into the slope, on contour, to reduce erosion caused by overland flow of water. The outcome is the formation

of small benched terraces of fertile soil for plant growth.

Check dams are mostly placed across drainage lines where water flows after rainfall; but does not flow

permanently. They are also placed across eroding gullies. They work well to stabilise roads or paths that

cross drainage lines. Angular, rather than round rocks should be used and the bottom layers should be large

30 cm-60 m wide and around 5-9 kg in weight. The smaller stones at the top and for the apron can be 15 cm-

22 cm in diameter. Ideally a series of check dams should be placed heel-to toe; where the level terrace of

accumulated sediment and soil behind each check dam extends to the downstream end of the check dam

higher up.

REQUIREMENTS

- Rainfall: >150 mm/year

- Temperature: >5°C

-Topography: 1,5%-25%

-Soil: all types – where stones and rocks are

easily available

IMPLEMENTATION

- Gardens, fields

-<0,1 ha, 0,1-1 ha, >2 ha

-Low cost, local resources,

- Labour intensive

Gulley forming in a field

Digging the ditch for keying in the

stones for the check dam

Starting to pack the check dam. Large rocks go at

the bottom

An example of a completed check dam with

the apron below the wall and the banana

shape of the wall visible.

4.3 TERRACES

A terrace is a level strip of soil built along the contour of a slope and supported by an earth or stone bund, or

rows of old tyres. Terraces create flat planting areas and stabilize slopes which would otherwise be too steep

for crop production. A series of terraces creates a step-like effect which slows down runoff, increases the

infiltration of water into the soil, and helps control soil erosion. Terraces are built on steeper slopes.

REQUIREMENTS

- Rainfall: >350 mm/year

- Temperature: >5°C

- Topography: 10%-40%%

-Soil: all types – where stones and rocks are easily

available

IMPLEMENTATION

- Gardens, fields

-<0,1 ha, 0,1-1 ha, >2 ha

-Low cost, local resources

- Labour intensive

Stone terraces for field cropping

Terraces can also be built using old tyres in areas where

stones are scarce

A view of a slope where field terraces have been made for maize

production (~20% slope)

A view of garden level terraces on a steep bank. (~40%

slope)

4.4 IMPROVED ORGANIC MATTER

Improving the organic matter content of the soil is important at any scale of operation. Methods include:

- Adding manure; improved manure quality through collecting manure that contains urine from kraals,

where grass or straw is used bedding material and piling this up and covering the pile with grass or

plastic. This is left for a minimum of 5-7 days prior to use.

- Adding compost; layers of dry material, green material, manure and soil built up and well wetted.

- Crop residues; (from grains, grasses, legumes, brassicas and chenopods) and

- deep/sheet mulching;

Finding sources of organic matter with high levels of required nutrients such as Nitrogen and Carbon is

important. Some plant residues and manures also contain high levels of specific elements such as potassium

(comfrey) and silicon (stinging nettle).

REQUIREMENTS

-Rainfall: >350 mm <1200 mm/year

- Temperature: >5°C

- Topography: 5%-25%

-Soil: all types – although soils that are too sandy or too clayey are difficult to manage

IMPLEMENTATION

- Gardens, fields

-<0,1 ha, 0,1-1 ha, >2 ha

-Low cost, local resources,

- Labour intensive

Goat pen with grass bedding to

make improved manureA compost pile made from layers of dry and green plant material, manure and soil, well wetted and

then covered

Comfrey, residues of grasses and maize and a growing mixture of cover crops – sunflower, millet and Dolichos beans

4.5 PLANTING LEGUMES AND GREEN MANURES

Legumes are important, as they fix Nitrogen from the air and improve soil fertility and soil health for

neighbouring and following crops. They can be planted with other crops or in rotation.

Examples of warm season legumes are sugar beans, runner beans, cowpeas, Jugo beans, ground nuts,

Dolichos (Lab-Lab), Velvet beans (Mucuna), Jack bean, mung beans, chickpeas, lentils, Lucerne and Sun

hemp. Examples of cool season legumes are; peas, broad beans, vetch, and clover.

Green manures are planted to be incorporated into the soil, just before flowering to maximise the nutrients

(including Nitrogen) that can be added to the soil for following crops. Green manures are often legumes (such

as vetch and clover), grains and grasses (such as black oats and fodder rye), brassicas (such as forage

radish, turnips, mustard and canola) and chenopods (such as Amaranthus).

REQUIREMENTS

-Rainfall: >150 mm <1200 mm/year

- Temperature: >5°C

- Topography: 5%-25%

-Soil: all types – although soils that are too sandy or too clayey are difficult to manage

IMPLEMENTATION

- Gardens, fields

-<0,1 ha, 0,1-1 ha, >2 ha

-Low cost, local resources,

- Labour intensive

Cowpeas intercropped with maize

Dolichos (lab-Lab) beans planted as a

green manure cover crop in rotation

with maize

Green manure cover crops; cool season –

Saia oats, fodder rye and fodder radish

Broad beans, Amaranthus, Lucerne and red clover

4.6 TRENCH BEDS

These are intensive gardening beds, dug out and filled with material for in situ composting.

- A bed is dug out to 60-80 cm depth, around 1 m wide and 1-10 m long.

- It is filled with a range of organic matter; manure, dry material, green material and soil

- Other layers could include tins at the bottom for iron and water holding, or sticks

- Bone meal and lime can be added to increase fertility

- Bones, skins and feathers can be added for P

- Ash can be added for K

- The bed is built up in a small basin, planted and mulched

REQUIREMENTS

- Rainfall: >350 mm/year

- Temperature: >5°C

- Topography: 0,5%-5%

- Soil: all types

IMPLEMENTATION

- Gardens

- <0,1 ha,

-Low cost, local resources

-Easy to do and maintain; labour intensive

Trenches are dug 60 cm-1 m deep. The bottom

layer is made up of old tins or branches

Then layers of organic matter are added – e.g.

maize stover, leaves, weeds, grass

Then a layer of manure is added, followed

by some top soil. This is watered and the

process is started again

If available, a layer of green organic matter,e.g. weeds, leaves,

vegetable peelings and remains is added after the layer of dry organic

The trench beds are built up with a shallow ditch around it and a basin

inside the bed and planted to seeds and seedlings

4.7 SHALLOW TRENCHES

Shallow trenches are an easier version of trench beds. They are dug out to around 30 cm and filled with a

mixture of organic matter; manure, dry and green plant materials. They are then filled up with soil and planted.

Shallow trenches are often used when making furrows and ridges, which give long narrow lines of more fertile

soil – most appropriate for larger gardens and fields. For trenches, mulching is important, as is mixed cropping

or crop rotation systems. These beds last 3-8 years before needing to be re-packed.

REQUIREMENTS

- Rainfall: >350 mm/year

- Temperature: >5°C

- Topography: 0,5%-5%

- Soil: all types

IMPLEMENTATION

- Gardens

- <0,1 ha,

-Low cost, local resources

-Easy to do and maintain; labour intensive

Digging out a shallow trench 30 cm wide

and 15 cm deep on a contour line in a

Starting to fill the trench with manure, green

and dry plant material

A garden with shallow and deep trench beds with mixed

croppin

and mulchin

4.8 ECO-CIRCLES

These are small circular, double-dug beds with addition of manure or compost, as well as mulch. They are

drip irrigated using a 2-litre bottle with small holes drilled into the sides, which is ‘planted’ in the centre of the

bed.

Eco-circles are appropriate for small gardens and also as a practice to introduce the benefits of increased soil

depth for rooting, organic matter, mulch and irrigation management.

REQUIREMENTS

- Rainfall: >350 mm/year

- Temperature: >5°C

- Topography: 0,5%-5%

- Soil: all types

IMPLEMENTATION

- Gardens

- <0,1 ha,

-Low cost, local resources

-Easy to do and maintain; labour intensive

Digging out the eco-circle, 1-1,5 m in diameter

and 30 cm deep with a further 15 cm loosened

an mixed with manure, before replacing the rest

of the soil which is also mixed with manure or

compost

A completed eco-circle bordered by a row of

stones. A wooden tripod is used to plant

climbing crops such as beans or tomatoes

An eco-circle, mulched, with the 2 L bottle

in the centre and planted to herbs

4.9 TARGETED APPLICATION OF FERTILIZER AND LIME

Fertilizers are added according to soil fertility recommendations, targeted next to growing plants rather than

spreading or banding. This saves on fertilizer use and also provides fertilizer only where it is required,

increasing efficiency. Lime can be added in basins or rows as surface applications – to reduce soil

acidification and maintain low acid saturation; or lime can be ploughed into a field/ plot prior to CA

interventions

REQUIREMENTS

- Rainfall: >450 mm/year

- Temperature: >5°C

- Topography: 1,5-10%

-Soil: all types – depending on fertilizer recommendations

IMPLEMENTATION

- Gardens, fields

-<0,1 ha, 0,1-1 ha, >2 ha

-Medium cost; reduction of external inputs through efficient use

- Labour intensive

Applying lime in basins using a bottle cap as

measure

Placement of fertilizer (LAN) below and about 2

cm away from the seed

Ploughing in lime prior to starting conservation tillage Applying surface lime in rows for bean production

Using a planter to help dispense

seed and fertilizer at the same time Measuring fertilizer with a teaspoon

4.10 ZAI PITS /PLANTING BASINS

A zai is a hole or planting pit, usually with a diameter of 20-40 cm and a depth of 10-20 cm. The Zai pits

capture rain and surface run-off water and protect the seeds and organic matter from being washed away.

They also help to concentrate water and nutrients for the crops. Pits are dug during the dry season. The

excavated earth is ridged around the demi-circle to improve the water retention capacity of the pit. After

digging the pits, composted organic matter is added at an average, recommended rate of 0.6 kg/pit and, after

the first rainfall, the matter is covered with a thin layer of soil and the seeds placed in the middle of the pit.

REQUIREMENTS

- Rainfall: >350 mm/year

- Temperature: >5°C

-Topography: 1,5%-25%

-Soil: all types (5-30% clay), and depths (>30 cm)

IMPLEMENTATION

- Gardens, fields

-0,1 ha-1 ha, >1 ha

-Low cost, local resources

-Easy to do and maintain; labour intensive

Zai

its in Ken

lanted to maize and then mulched for increased moisture holdin

and soil fertilit

(

from

ermies.com

2017

)

Zai pits dug in an eroded field, with composting material ready

to be added

(

from Chris Rei

, 2010

)

Maize planted in Zai pits, in Kenya (from Inadesforum.net

4.11 CONSERVATION AGRICULTURE

A method of field cropping using the following principles:

xMinimal soil disturbance; no ploughing, just opening planting holes, basins and or rows

xCover the soil; crop residues are left on the soil surface as a mulch, and crops are kept in the field for

as long as possible to provide canopy cover of living plants

xCrop diversification: Inter cropping, crop rotation and inclusion of summer and winter cover crop

mixes.

CA improves soil health and soil fertility, crop yields and water

holding capacity of the soil. It reduces run-off and erosion as well as

soil temperatures. It reduces soil crusting and compaction

REQUIREMENTS

- Rainfall: >350 mm/year

- Temperature: >5°C

- Topography: 1,5%-15%

-Soil: all types (clay percentage 5%-35%)

IMPLEMENTATION

- Gardens, fields

-<0,1 ha, 0,1-1 ha, >2 ha

-Medium cost (Seed, fertilizer, agrochemicals), planters, local

resources

- Labour intensive

PRINCIPLE 1: Minimal soil disturbance

Different planters; Mbli (hoe-type hand),

Haraka (Wheel), Matracca (jab) and animal

drawn planters, (Knapik – below)

Planting furrows and basins by hand using hand hoes and MBLI planters –

without

lou

hin

A tractor drawn two row no-till planter

Using a Haraka wheel planter – this planter can “plant” a range of different

seeds

but does not allow for fertilizer

lacement at the same time

Using a Knappick no-till planter with animal traction

PRINCIPLE 2: Soil cover

PRINCIPLE 3: Crop diversification

A maize and bean intercropped plot – using tramlines (double rows)

and close spacing

A maize and cowpea intercropped plot – using tramlines (double

rows) and close spacing

Winter cover crops; saia/black oats, forage

sorghum and fodder radish

Summer cover crops; sunflower, millet

and Sun hem

Lab-Lab bean (dolichos),

Runoff clear

(

42 mm

)

Runoff muddy (195

mm)

A CA plot with some crop residue. Run-off from

the plot is clean and low

Mulching a CA plot to provide for soil

cover

Good soil cover from crop residues

A ploughed plot with no crop residue. Run-

off from the plot is muddy and high

4.12 STRIP CROPPING

Strip cropping is cultivation in which different crops are sown in alternate strips to prevent soil erosion and

optimise nutrient uptake. Planting of strips have to be across the slope or on contour.

Crops need to be chosen to have a mixture of rooting depths and nutrient requirements. Strip cropping of

multifunctional species is a good idea. Agroforestry species such as Pigeon Pea, Moringa, Sesbania sesban,

Leuceana, etc. work well. Grasses such as vetiver, lemon grass and Napier fodder can also be used, as well

as Rhodes-Smutsfinger (Digitaria) mix, Paspalum notatum and Tall Fescue.

REQUIREMENTS

- Rainfall: >350 mm/year

- Temperature: >5°C

- Topography: 1,5%-15%

-Soil: all types (clay percentage 5%-35%)

IMPLEMENTATION

- Gardens, fields

-<0,1 ha, 0,1-1 ha, >2 ha

-Low cost (Seed, local resources)

- Labour intensive

Strip cropping of maize with Paspalum and Digitaria

Strip cropping Pigeon pea/Leuceana and maize Grass strips on contour in between maize

Maize and Lucerne or Lespedeza strip cropping

5 CROP MANAGEMENT (PLANTING SYSTEMS, CROP HEALTH, PROPAGATION, FRUIT PRODUCTION)

5.1 LIQUID MANURES

Liquid manures are water-based extracts made from animal- and plant-based materials that are fermented

and then diluted prior to spraying on plants or the soil around plants as an additional fertility enhancement

measure. Liquid manures add and balance nutrients in plants and also add microbial mixes for increased

disease and pest resistance in plants.

Common sources for liquid manure are animal manures

(preferably fresh, still containing the urinary fraction) such as

cattle, goat, horse, sheep and poultry manure, and/or plant

materials such as dark green leafy weeds (for Nitrogen),

banana stems (for potassium and phosphate), comfrey and

stinging nettle (both provide silicon in addition to macro and

micro nutrients for disease resistance in plants). These brews

are usually diluted 1:4 prior to use.

IMPLEMENTATION

- Gardens

- <0,1 ha,

-Low cost, local resources, low labour

-Easy and quick to do

Chopping banana stems as the basis of a green tea or plant

based liquid manure Chopping weeds to add to a liquid manure brew

Animal manure used as liquid manure; chicken, goat and

cattle manure are

ood sources – the fresher the better

Liquid manure containers need

to be covered to avoid

evaporation of some of the

important nutrients

5.2 MIXED CROPPING

Mixed cropping in a gardening context, is a combination of inter-cropping, crop rotation and companion

planting. The intention is to have as many different types of crops (including medicinal, pest repellent and

multi-purpose plants) in your vegetable and fruit production systems as possible, throughout the year, to

ensure a healthy food supply, improve pest, disease and weed management and reduce risk of shortages due

to crop failure.

The choice of crops is based on the following:

oBeing able to harvest food from a garden for household use throughout the year. This means a focus

on crops that can be harvested for extended period such as leafy greens, leaf lettuces, and spring

onions and leeks, and de-emphasising crops such as cabbage and onions that have long waiting

periods without producing food.

oCrops high in Vitamin A; such as dark green leafy vegetables (such as spinach, mustard, rape and

kale), carrots, traditional greens (such as Amaranthus and pumpkin leaves) and herbs (such as

parsley).

oPest-repellent crops such as coriander, garlic chives and other herbs such as rosemary and thyme.

oLegumes and protein rich vegetables such as beans, peas and turnips.

oPerennial multipurpose plants such as wormwood, lemongrass, bulbinella and comfrey.

oFlowers such as marigolds and calendula.

In addition, attention is given to not planting crops of the same family together in one bed to reduce the spread

of common diseases and nutrient competition. Thus, tomatoes, brinjals, potatoes and peppers are not planted

together, neither are brassicas such as cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower and kale, or chards such as swiss chard

and beetroot.

Crop rotation is introduced both in terms of alternating heavy feeders such as cabbage with light feeders such

as swiss chard and lettuces, as well as the well-known rotation of leaf-root-legume-fruit.

Cropping calendars are developed to suit localities and changing climatic conditions.

Below is a cropping calendar jointly designed with participants from Limpopo, which experiences warm

winters and hot summers. In KZN and the Eastern Cape where winters are cool to cold, standard cropping

calendars are still mostly appropriate.

IMPLEMENTATION

- Gardens, fields

-<0,1 ha, 0,1-1 ha, >2 ha

-Low cost (Seed and plants), local resources,

-Easy to do

Magdelina Malepe (Sedawa),

marigolds, thyme, parsley,

inach and kale

Christina Thobejane (Sedawa) –

maize, okra, tomatoes kale and

marigolds

Phumelele Hlongwane

(Ezibomvini) – beetroot,

mustard spinach, spring onions

Alex Makgopa (Sedawa) – spring

onions, spinach, carrots and

mari

olds

Mrs Mcanyana (Gobizembe) –

broccoli, Chinese cabbage,

spinach, coriander and marigolds

Trench bed with a mixture of

herbs – fennel, coriander,

parsley and chives

5.3 CROP ROTATION

Crop rotation is an important management strategy for both gardens and fields. Crop rotation reduces pest and

disease build up in the soil and the environment balances nutrient removal from the soil and maintains and

improves soil health.

Work with a minimum of 3-year rotations in

field crops. An example is Maize (heavy

feeder) rotated with a cover crop mix (such

as Sun hemp, millet and sunflower) (light

feeder) rotated with legumes (such as dry

beans, cowpeas and Dolichos)(legume)

Work with a 3-4 season rotation in

vegetable production. One system is to

move through the following sequence after

digging a trench or adding compost; Fruit;

leaf; root; legume.

5.4 NATURAL PEST AND DISEASE CONTROL

Natural pest and disease control in an intensified homestead food production system context consists of a

combination of the following four approaches:

¾Improvement of soil fertility, soil health and soil water holding capacity to produce vibrant, healthy

plants, working form the assumption that stressed plants are more susceptible to pest and disease

attacks.

¾Mixed cropping and garden sanitation; to reduce the concentration of pests and diseases that occur in

mono cropping systems as well as the potential for re-infestation and infection through safe removal

of diseased plant material and removal of breeding grounds for pests. And to promote the presence of

pest predators and bees which are natural predators of common garden pests.

¾Planting of multi-purpose species, both annual and perennial, to include plants that have pest

repellent and pest control properties. These include for example;

oflowers such as marigolds and calendula;

oherbs such as lavender, rosemary, coriander, parsley, thyme, fennel, basil, rocket, lemon

grass and garlic chives;

omedicinal species such as wormwood bulbine and bulbinella species, aloe spp, comfrey,

stinging nettle; and

oleguminous trees such as Sesbania sesban, moringa, pigeon pea and Acacia spp.

¾Making of brews/ teas with pest and disease control properties. Here common household recipes

include combinations of chilli, garlic, onion and green bar soap (for soft bodied insects such as

aphids), paraffin and onion (for hard bodied insects such as beetles and grasshoppers) and tobacco

(only for pernicious and very heavy pest infestations). There are however many other options as well.

IMPLEMENTATION

- Gardens, fields

-<0,1 ha, 0,1-1 ha

-Low cost; local resources,

-Easy to medium labour intensity, knowledge intensive

Integrated garden management; water and soil management, diversified crops,

perennial and annual mix

Pest predators control pests by ingesting

them and or la

Umbelliferae – such as onions and

leeks attract pest predators – e.g.

asps

Pest control brews; soap chilli garlic mixes, paraffin

and onions mixes

–

for soft bodied insects

Marigolds protect against root knot nematodes

Garlic – An example

METHOD

Chop some cloves finely (one large bulb, or two medium bulbs) and soak in 2 teaspoons of oil for one day or

in liquid paraffin for two days. Use a glass jar, not a tin. Mix with half a litre of soapy water and filter. Mix 1 part

solution with 10 parts of water and use as a spray. Shake well before applying

TARGETS

Insects in general: mosquitoes, cotton stainers, aphids, flies, army worms, ticks, ants, beetles, caterpillars,

diamondback moths, false codling moths, grubs, mites, peach borers and termites.

Fungi: Scab, mildew, bean rust and tomato blight.

Alternaria – fruit rot, early blight, purple blotch, leaf spot.

Cercospora – leaf mould, leaf spot, early blight, frog-eye.

Colletotrichurn – leaf spot, anthracnose, fruit rot, smudge.

Bacteria: Xanthomonas spp.

False codling moth larvae and

moth

Garlic bulbs

Bacterial blight on strawberries caused by

Xanthomonas campestris

Symptoms of anthracnose (caused by

Colletotrichum

)

on ca

sicum fruit

5.5 INTEGRATED WEED MANAGEMENT

Weeds are plants, both annuals and perennials, that grow

freely and vigorously in fields and gardens and compete with

crops for nutrients, space and water.

Different soils and climate, cultivation and weeding methods

mean that often certain weeds flourish and become very

difficult to deal with. As an example, nut grass and sedges

prefer high clay soils and can take over completely if weeds

are managed by cutting above ground growth only, through

hoeing. This weed multiplies primarily through corms under the

ground.

Aggressive annual weeds such as black jack and Amaranthus

take over if the late season weeds are not removed, as they

seed vigorously and seed can survive long dry periods.

Integrated weed management includes a number of different

practices such as improving soil structure and soil health,

mulching, cover crops, crop rotation and close spacing. It also

includes mechanical and or chemical weed control methods.

Composting also kills weeds and if done properly, can reduce

the seed load of weeds in an environment. Weeding late in the

season, to reduce the seed load of annual weeds is a very

important practice.

IMPLEMENTATION

- Gardens, fields

-<0,1 ha, 0,1-1 ha

-Low cost; local resources,

-Easy to medium labour intensity, knowledge intensive

A cropping field almost entirely over-run by nut

grass – due to repeated shallow hoeing as a weed

control method

A maize and bean intercropped plot, where weeds

have almost entirely out-competed the crops.

Composting kills weed seeds and is a good way to treat manures

before use as it also increases the nutrient value of the manure

Close spacing and intercropping protect against crops being

overrun by weeds – on the left is a maize crop with little weeding

on the right a close spaced intercrop planted at the same time,

under a similar weed control regime

Dock (below indicates acidic soils, amaranthus (above left)

indicates fertile soil with bad structure, and black jack (above right

can take u

nutrients unavailable to cro

Sedges and nutgrass indicate a lack of air in the soil, due to

com

action and lack of soil structure

5.6 NURSERIES AND PROPAGATION

Small household-based nurseries for propagating crops (vegetables, herbs and fruit) and multifunctional

plants (medicinal and pest control species) from seed, cuttings, division, bulbs and corms are important in

maintaining and increasing diversity in the garden. They do not need any specialist equipment, expect

potentially planting medium, planting bags and or speedling trays and can be set up under a shady tree in the

homestead.

Seedling beds are made to be deep (30-60 cm) with lots of organic matter (compost and manure) and should

be shaded-to keep seed moist (but not too wet), during germination and early growth. Nurseries using

speedling trays require intensive management and are difficult to do organically. It is better and easier to grow

your seedlings in the ground and transplant them from there.

IMPLEMENTATION

- Gardens

-<0,1 ha,

-Medium cost (Seed, plants, containers), local resources,

- Labour intensive

Seedling production in well composted dedicated beds, with shade

and plastic structures to protect the seedlings

Shade netting structures for propagation of

vegetables and herbs

Tubs and basins can

be used – they are

easy to manage and

move

Sugar cane and mangoes being propagated

in the ground in small nurseries

Small household nurseries under shade trees for

propagation of fruit, multipurpose trees and

shrubs and herbs. Here mangoes and Moringa

are being grown

5.7 SEED SAVING

Seed saving is both a common practice among smallholders and a dwindling one. Seeds are kept from one

year to the next and due to increasingly difficult growing conditions, many participants have reported losing

most of their seed stock. Increasingly, smallholders will buy seed and attempt to keep seed from those crops

when harvested; meaning a substantial attrition in the availability of seed of traditional crops. Seed saving is a

very important practice for safe-guarding traditional crops and farmer preferred open pollinated varieties (not

hybrids), that are locally adapted to climate, pests and diseases.

Some aspects to keep in mind when saving seed are the following:

¾It is important to promote pollinators (insects that distribute pollen) by grow numerous types of

flowering plants and keep diversity in and around gardens and fields high and reducing pesticide use

¾Keep seed from strong healthy plants only; never from plants that are bolting (seeding early)

¾Choose between 6-24 plants to keep seed from

¾Never keep seed from diseased plants

¾Seed must mature and dry on the plant as long as possible and

¾Plants that easily cross pollinate need to be separated (e.g. brassicas, maize, peppers and chillies,

pumpkins, lettuce, etc.) in space, or time or use caging.

IMPLEMENTATION

- Gardens, fields,

-<0,1 ha, -0,1-1 ha, >2 ha

-Low cost, local resources

-Easy to do and maintain; somewhat labour and knowledge intensive

A garden for seed production, with structures for caging,

and 6-24 of each variety planted for seed saving –

different plant families are planted close together to

Hand pollination of maize for seed

selection

A caged chilli plant to ensure pure seed

that is true to type

Flowers and plants for promotion of

pollination; by bees, hornets, butterflies,

etc.

Pollinators

love flowers –

man

different

5.7.1 SEED PROCESSING AND STORAGE

Overall, seed needs to remain evenly cool, dark and dry to keep their viability as long as possible. If seed is

stored under varying humidity and temperature, they will quickly lose their ability to germinate. Below are a

few crucial pointers to good storage practices for seed.

¾Humidity; Seed will absorb moisture from the air. Seed needs to be stored at <10% moisture content

in dry or airtight environment

¾Avoid plastic packets and containers

¾Light shortens seed life; Sote seed in dark jars and/or a dark room. Continual darkness is required,

¾Temperature; Seeds last longer in cold but not freezing conditions

¾Seeds such as tomatoes and cucumbers are covered in a jelly that stops seed from germinating. This

jelly needs to be removed, prior to storage and germination of seed. The jelly can be fermented with

water and sugar and then the seed is rinsed and dried

¾Further drying of seed can be done with silica gel

¾Storage with ash, lime, and crushed dried leaves of certain plants, e.g. aloe is recommended to avoid

damage from storage pests.

For every 1% less

moisture in the

seed the seed life

doubles.

Use silicon to draw water

from seed and ash for

stora

e of dr

seeds

Layout of a small home-based seed

bank; drying racks, paper packets and

lass

ars

Store seed in glass containers

Fermentation of tomato and gooseberry seed for storage

and

ood

ermination

Store seed and gourds in

a cool, dry, dark place

Seed when

storage

temperature is

lowered b

5ºC

5.8 FRUIT PRODUCTION

Producing a range of fruit at homestead level, which can ripen over a large part of the year is an important

aspect of both diversification and resilience. Fruit can be

produced form seed, cuttings, root and sucker divisions

and grafting. Fruit trees need to be planted in deep, fertile

basins and need irrigation, especially when young. They

need to be protected from wind and should be pruned in

winter (deciduous fruit such as peaches, plums and

apples) or pruned for optimum fruit bearing (evergreen

trees such as citrus, mangoes and avocados). Organic

remedies can be used to control the main pests (e.g. fruit

fly, ants, aphids and scale) and diseases.

Different fruit types are more suitable for different

agroecological regions. Mainly, there are those that need

cold winters (sub-tropical fruit), such as apples, pears,

plums, grapes and peaches and tropical fruit which do

not survive cold winters such as mangoes, bananas,

avocadoes and litchis. Citrus can deal with a very wide range of temperatures, but needs to be well irrigated

IMPLEMENTATION

- Gardens, orchards

-<0,1 ha, 0,1-1 ha >1 ha

-Medium cost (Seed and plants), local resources,

-Labour and knowledge intensive

Use organic remedies such as pyrethrum, mineral

oil and lime sulphur. Use rooting powder for

propagation of cuttings

Irrigation of orange

trees, basins and

bunds hold more water

Tree tomatoes are propagated form seed are

high in Vitamin C and fruit in March-May when

there is very little other fruit

Propagate from seed; granadillas,

avocados, mangoes, gooseberries,

and tree tomatoes

Use bunds and basins to make full

use of rainwater for trees

A home-made fruit fly trap using

oranges and sugar water

Plant trees in deep holes filled with

compost and create a basin for

irri

ation with mulchin

5.9 ORGANIC MANGO PRODUCTION

Mangoes are very hardy and do well in areas with moderate winters and warm to hot summers. There are

‘wild’ varieties that can easily be grown from seed. More modern varieties grown to be larger, sweeter and

fibre-less are grafted trees, where the desired fruit bearing scions are grafted onto hardy, disease resistant

rootstocks. Examples of names of varieties

that are presently common are Keit, Kent,

Shelley and Tommy Atkins. These varieties

are sold as fruit, juice, dried mango and as

fruit leather.

Below are a few hints for growing organic

mango trees:

-Make compost at least 4 to 6 months

before planting

-Plant newly acquired trees in Spring

in holes of 60 cm by 60 cm filled with

a mixture of compost, soil, lime and

bone meal. Construct an irrigation

basin around the tree and provide

mulching

-Compost is added annually, after

fruiting

-Pruning is done annually after fruiting

to ensure an open canopy for the tree, where all fruit can receive sunlight and

-Young trees need 20 to 40 L of water per week

REQUIREMENTS

- Rainfall: >350 mm/year

- Temperature: >5°C

-Topography: gentle slopes

- Soils: Any

-Irrigation; Some access to irrigation is required

IMPLEMENTATION

-Gardens and orchards

-<0,1 ha, 0,1-1 ha

-Medium cost, external and local resources; access to new varieties

-Easy to manage, but requires some technical skill

Value adding through juicing and drying of mangoes

A pruned mango tree pushing out new

growth, with compost added in the

irri

ation basin and mulchin

A smallholder mango orchard in

Limpopo, being inspected by a

mango estate manager

Pruning, composting and irrigation

basins added for an old mango tree

to bring it back into production

6 LIVESTOCK INTEGRATION

These are aspects of livestock management which either overlap with cropping and or are part of integrating

the farming system into one coherent system.

In this section we explore practices that can increase and improve fodder and grazing options for livestock

6.1 AGROFORESTRY OPTIONS

Tree crops are mixed into the farming system either as fallows, monocrops or between annual crops (usually

as strip cropping in rows). Livestock fodder species such as pigeon pea (udali), acacia species

(umhlalankwazi), Sesbani sesban (umsokosoko), Moringa olifeara and Leauceana spp are common.

REQUIREMENTS

- Rainfall: >350 mm/year

- Temperature: >5°C

- Topography: 1,5&-15%

- Soil: all types

IMPLEMENTATION

- Gardens, fields

-<0,1 ha, 0,1-1 ha, >2 ha

-Medium cost (Seed/planting stock), local resources

- Labour intensive

Goats grazing on a stand of pigeon peas

Moringas planted in lines in a small field Leaucena hedgerow in a field planted to beans

(foreground) and maize (background)

Sesbania plant growing in a field as a hedgerow

Examples of different ways of planting trees in a landscape

6.2 AGRI-SILVIPASTORAL PRACTICES

An Agri-silvicultural system is a collection of agroforestry practices that involve combining crops and trees with

a purpose of maximising benefits per unit area. Practices found within this system include:

-Alley cropping; planting of woody species in hedges or crop species in alleys between hedges.

Woody components are essential for improving soil fertility as well as the crops grown

-Improved fallows; woody species are planted and left to grow during fallow period. The woody species

improve soil fertility and water holding capacity

-Home gardens; Intimate, multi-storey combination of various trees and crops around homesteads.,

which provide a number of functions such as shade, medicine, fruit and fodder

-Multipurpose-trees on croplands; trees are scattered or arranged in a systematic pattern on bunds,

terraces or along field boundaries. These trees are chosen to fix nitrogen and provide fruit, firewood

and fodder.

IMPLEMENTATION

-Gardens, fields, livestock

-<0,1 ha, 0,1-1 ha >1 ha

-Medium cost (Seed and plants), local resources,

-Labour and knowledge intensive

Leguminous shrubs planted in grazing

areas

for browsin

livestock

Pastures planted in between trees in a nut

orchard for grazing and shade for

livestock

6.3 CREEP FEEDING AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Supplementary feeding is a livestock management practice used to provide animals with those nutrients that

the pastures lack. This is important in winter, when there is a lack of grazing and also if grazing quality is low

(i.e. has little to no protein) Options for supplementary feeding include:

-Protein meals and liquids such as Voermol Premix 450 (a powder) and LS 33 (a liquid)

-Grain and seed such as crushed maize, sorghum, etc.

-Lick blocks; both mineral and protein licks

Supplementation can also be in a form of alternative fodder species. This involves growing of species with

higher/better nutritional value compared to present fodder. Most of these species are planted to provide high

quality green fodder into late winter. Examples of these species include: Lucerne, fodder rye, black (saia)

oats, vetch, Teff, fodder radish, Japanese radish, Kale, and turnips. Perennial grass species that remain

green into winter such as kikuyu and Tall Fescue as also a good idea

Creep feeding is a simple management practice allowing calves unrestricted access to additional feed while

they are still suckling the cow. Calves gain access to the feed supplement through a 'creep', which is a fence

opening or a gate opening large enough for calves to pass through but too small for the cows.

IMPLEMENTATION

- Livestock

-0,1-1 ha >1 ha

-Medium cost, local resources,

-Labour and knowledge intensive

A fodder supplement made from Dried Sesbania

sesban leaves, crushed maize and salt

An example of a commercial creep feeding mechanism for

calves.

Japanese radish

A relay crop of vetch and Saia oats into a field of maize for winter grazing.

LS 33 and premix 450

Home-made protein lick blocks consisting of molasses, urea

protein meal, a phosphorous source, water, a bit of cement and

salt.

6.4 STALL FEEDING AND HAY MAKING

Stall feeding is basically a cut and carry system of feeding livestock in their stalls/kraals, to reduce damage

caused by livestock in fields and also to ensure better nutrition.

Hay is dried livestock feed and can

be made from veld grass, specific

species such as Lucerne, cowpeas,

Teff, etc. or crop residues. Hay

bales can be made on a small scale

with a hand operated baler,

appropriate for smallholder farmers.

IMPLEMENTATION

- Livestock

-0,1-1 ha >1 ha

-Medium cost, local resources,

-Labour and knowledge intensive

Lucerne bale Eragrostis Teff bale

Hand operated baler, with a bale of veld grass made with this baler

Stall or kraal feeding

Legume (soy bean) stover

Maize stover

6.5 ROTATIONAL GRAZING

Constant grazing of palatable grass species weakens them and allows unpalatable plants to dominate. To

retain the productivity of grasslands it is necessary to rest a portion of the grazing area for a full growing

season. This allows the grass plants to

store nutrients in their root systems and

make the grasses more nutritious.

Ideally one quarter of the veld should be

rested every four years. It is important for

livestock owners to work together to

develop a rotational resting system.

IMPLEMENTATION

- Livestock

- >1 ha

-Medium cost, local resources

-Labour and knowledge intensive

Early season overgrazed veld – grass is all short, with evidence of

erosion

Late season well managed veld; has a lot of red grass

(Themeda triandra), shown by the red colouration of the seed

heads. There is good grass cover, with a diverse range of

grass species